The role of grammar in language use
So many people still believe that grammar is a discipline that should be learned on its own. This is in fact a faulty assumption; Grammar is all the time present in our life.
So, you can in no way separate grammar from language use whether orally or in writing.
Grammar is implanted in us, it is endowed to every human being from birth to last with him throughout a whole lifetime. So, at this stage we are rather talking about a system that allows us to figure out the meaning of utterances we receive as an input from other individuals in our social environment. For instance, whenever you meet a friend to talk to, you are ready to receive a flow of speech that goes directly to your brain to be treated based on the rules of grammar you know. These rules would enable your brain to decipher the utterances you receive and convert them into units of meaning. This is in fact the role of grammar in understanding any human language.
samedi 23 janvier 2010
The role of grammar in language use
vendredi 22 janvier 2010
Many people do not find it easy to start learning English grammar. they are always inquiring about what kind of grammar lessons to start with.
Yes, this is in fact a little bit problematic unless the learner does not have some mastery of the language. But, this does not mean that there is no chance for a beginner to start approching English grammar. Beginners do equally have the same opportunities to start learning Grammar and to upgrade during the process.
From my own experience as a University English student, I would recommend beginners to start with tenses. Tenses are a good start for beginners. thanks to being exposed to different tenses, the learner would little by little devolep some awareness of the different english tenses.
Afterwards, the learner should move on to learning the differnt kinds of articles (definite and indefinite). Articles would make it easier to overcome the confusion that happens between countable, uncountable and abstract nouns. Don't get shoked if you still don't figure out the difference between them. By the time you understand how and when to use articles, you'll have been fully aware of the distinction between countable, uncountable and abstract nouns.
The third grammar lesson to tackle would be "Prepositions". Prepositions are so many in English, you cannot limit then to only one list. Nevertheless, there is a limited number of prepositions that are frequently used, and that need to be understood and put into practise through different exercices you can find abundantly available on the Net.
The fourth lesson to take would be concerned with relative pronouns. There are only eight relative pronouns in English (who, whom, which, that, whose, what, when, where)which make it easier for you to learn by heart.
Finally, after having fully understood and put into pracise the preceding four lessons, it is recommended to start up with nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs, and figuring out the distinction between them. This last lesson would be a little bit challenging and time consuming, so be patient.
1. The Comma Splice
* If only a comma appears between two independent clauses without a
coordinating conjunction, the error is called a comma splice.
Faulty: Salmon swim upstream, they leap over huge dams to reach their destination.
Revised: Salmon swim upstream, and then they leap over huge dams to reach their destination.
* A comma splice also occurs when a comma and a transitional expression join two independent clauses.
Faulty: Some parents support bilingual education, however, many oppose it vociferously.
Revised: Some parents support bilingual education; however, many oppose it vociferously.
2. The Abused Apostrophe
* ·Apostrophes indicate ownership or possession (Fred's books, the government's plan).
* They can also signal omitted letters (who's, can't).
Apostrophe Examples
3. Subject-verb Agreement
* When you use the present tense, subject and verb must agree in person and number.
* Two key points about Agreement:
- Generally, you can put an -s on a noun to make it plural,
- or you can put an -s on a verb to make it singular.
An -s on both is not standard English.
Faulty:
My friends comes over every Sunday.
Revised:
My friend comes over every Sunday.
My friends come over every Sunday.
Top
4. Coordinated & Subordinated Conjunctions
* Conjunctions indicate the relationship between words or groups of words.
* The two classes of conjunctions are coordinate and subordinate.
Coordinate conjunctions - indicate units of equal status (yet, and, but, or, for, so, nor).
Ex.
Do you want cake or ice cream?
I graduated a semester early, but I had to go to work immediately.
Subordinate conjunctions - indicate that one unit is more important than the other (after, although, as, because, before, if, since, that, unless, until, when, where, while).
Ex.
After the value of the NASDAQ dropped by over two thirds, some of the new
Dot-com millionaires found out the party was over.
5. Double Negatives
* Avoid using two negatives in one sentence, or you will end up saying the opposite of what you mean.
Faulty: Barely no one noticed that the pop star lip-synched during the whole
performance.
Revised: Barely anyone noticed that the pop star lip-synched during the whole
performance.
6. Disruptive & Misplaced Modifiers
Be wary of modifiers that sometimes seem to modify two things, or the wrong thing.
* Limiting Modifiers include words such as almost, hardly, even, just, merely, not, only, and simply.
* Limiting modifiers should always go before the word or words they modify in a work
Notice in this example that "just" is used in four places, and in each place it carries a different connotation.
Just twenty new people just volunteered just for the sea turtle rescue program
just for the spring.
More Modifier Models
7. Unclear Antecedents
* The antecedent is the noun that a pronoun refers to. The pronoun and antecedent must be in agreement.
* When pronouns and the nouns they replace are separated by several words, sometimes the agreement in number is lost.
Faulty: The band members collected his and her uniforms.
Revised: The band members collected their uniforms.
8. Preposition Overuse
Prepositions are words used before nouns and pronouns to form phrases
that convey relationships such as of time and space (in the poem,
throughout the day, behind her, without a doubt, for you). Prepositional
phrases are often idiomatic: on occasion, in love.
* Prepositions can pile information onto previous nouns:
The design of the apparatus with the tubing and the electrical wiring was
useful for diagnosis of the transmission of electrical impulses in the nerve
tested.
9. Fragments
* Fragments are incomplete sentences that are punctuated to look like sentences.
* Fragments lack key elements-often a subject or verb-or else are a subordinate clause or phrase.
* How to turn fragments into sentences:
Incorporate the fragment into an adjoining sentence.
Faulty: She saw him coming. And looked away.
Revised: She saw him coming and looked away.
Add the missing element.
Faulty: When aiming for the highest returns, and also thinking about the
possible losses.
Revised: When aiming for the highest returns, investors also should think
about the possible losses.
10. Run-ons
* Run-ons jam together two or more sentences, failing to separate them with appropriate punctuation.
* The writer must be careful to determine where one main clause stops and the next begins.
Faulty: I do not recall what kind of printer it was all I remember is that it could
sort, staple, and print a packet at the same time.
Revised: I do not recall what kind of printer it was. All I remember is that it could
Sort, staple, and print a packet at the same time.
jeudi 21 janvier 2010
Reported speech
Look at the two statements below:
· Linda: "I will leave tomorrow"
· Linda said that she would leave the following day.
In the first sentence, there are the quotation marks because we are repeating the exact words used by the original speaker. This is called direct speech.
In the second sentence, however, the speaker is repeating what Linda has said without repeating the exact words she has used. This is what we call indirect or reported speech.
Now, have another look at the two statements at the end of the page and focus on the differences between them. Apart from the absence of the quotation marks, you can notice the use of the operating verb "said" at the beginning of the second sentence. Note also that "I" has become "she", will" has become "would" and "tomorrow" has become "the following day".
So, when turning sentences from the direct into the indirect speech, we have to observe the following:
1- Omit the quotation marks
2- Use a reporting verb like "say" , "tell" etc…
3- Change the pronouns according to the context.
4- Be careful! If the reporting verb is in the past tense, verbs in the direct speech have to be changed into a corresponding past tense. Some expressions of time and place are also changed. (look at tables 1,2,3)
But if the reporting verb is in the present, the tenses used in the direct speech are not changed.
This is usual when we are immediately reporting what a person is saying or has just said.
· Linda has just said she will leave tomorrow.
· Bill says he is ill.
I- Statements in indirect speech:
| | Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
| 1- | Simple present "I'm exhausted", Sandra said. | ¦ Simple past Sandra said (that) she was exhausted. |
| 2- | Present progressive "I'm telling you the truth", | ¦ Past progressive |
| 3- | Present perfect "I haven't cheated you", he said | ¦ Past perfect He said he hadn't cheated us |
| 4- | Present perfect progressive Peter: "I have been searching the truth". | ¦ Past perfect progressive Peter said he had been searching the truth. |
| 5- | Simple past "I did my best to help you", Jack told Helen | ¦ Past perfect Jack told Helen he had done his best to help her. |
| 6- | Past progressive "I was sleeping…", Peter insisted. | ¦ Past perfect progressive Peter insisted that he had been sleeping… |
| 7- | Future Alex: "If I need your help, I'll phone you". | ¦ Conditional. Alex said if he needed our help, he would phone us. |
Note that conditional sentences type 2 and 3, and unreal past tenses (for example after "wish) remain unchanged.
· "If I were dishonest, I would fool you", Jack told Helen.
¦ Jack told Helen if he were dishonest, he would fool her.
· "I wish I had a brother", the girl said.
¦ The girl said she wished she had a brother.
Note also that most modals remain unchanged. The only modals which change are the following:
| Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
| "You can do better", he told me. | He told me I could do better. |
| "We may spend the night out" the children said. | The children said they might spend the night out. |
| I must tell him the truth", she said. | She said she had to tell him the truth. |
| "t shall pay all my debts next month", he said. | He said he would/ should pay all his debts the following month. |
As we have noted earlier, some expressions of time and place change when the reported sentences are introduced by a verb in the past tense. Consider the table below:
| Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
| "I don't think it's this easy", Peter said | Peter said he didn't think it was that easy. |
| "I can't cope with all these problems", Helen said | Helen said she couldn't cope with all those problems. |
| "We must leave now", they said | They insisted they had to leave then/at that time |
| "I'll try to finish all this work tomorrow", Jack said | Jack said he would try to finish the following day. |
| "We can't finish all this work today", they said. | They said they couldn't finish all the work that day. |
| "We'll leave tonight", they said | They said they would leave that night. |
| "Two prisoners tried to escape yesterday", the jailor said. | The jailor said two prisoners had tried to escape the day before. |
| "We'll leave next week", they said | They said they would leave the following week. |
| "I didn't get my wage last Saturday", she said. | She said she hadn't got her wage the previous Saturday. |
| "I met him two weeks ago", she said. | She said she had met him two weeks before. |
| "I'll meet him here", she said | She said she would meet him there. |
II- Questions in indirect speech:
When we turn direct questions into indirect speech, we have to observe the following:
1- Pronouns, tenses, modals and adverbs change as in statements.
2- The interrogative form of the verb changes to the affirmative form and the question mark is omitted.
3- As an introductory verb, it is necessary to use a verb of inquiry like "ask", "wonder" , "inquire" etc…
· "Why would you like to leave early?" asked Mary.
> Mary asked me why I would like to leave early. (WH- word + subject + verb…)
· "When will
> The man wondered when
· "Why did you arrive late?" the wife asked.
> The wife asked her husband why he had arrived late.
4- Remember that if there is no question word, that is in case of Yes/No questions, we use "if" or "whether" immediately after the reporting verb:
· "Can you lend me a fiver?" Paul asked.
> Paul asked me if I could lend him a fiver.
· "Do you have any idea about the reasons for my delay?" the husband wondered.
> The husband wondered whether his wife had any idea about the reasons for his delay.
· "Did you solve your money problems?" the husband wondered.
> The husband wondered whether his wife had any idea about the reasons for his delay.
· "Did you solve your money problems?" Jack wanted to know.
> Jack wanted to know if I had solved my money problems.
III- Commands, Requests, Suggestions, Advice, Apologies etc…
The choice of the reporting verb isn't always a straightforward task.
Sometimes, especially if the direct speech includes an imperative verb, it is necessary to understand the meaning of utterances and the context in which it has occurred. Below are some examples to illustrate this point.
1/ "Stop making noise", the father told his son. (This is an order, a command)
> The father ordered his son to stop making noise.
2/ "Don't go too far, Bill" the mother said (This is an order, or better a warning)
> The mother warned her son Bill not to go too far.
3/ "Have a cup of tea", my friend said. (This a request or an invitation)
> My friend invited me to have a cup of tea.
4/ "Don't make too much noise please", the teacher said. (This is a request)
> The teacher asked his pupils not to make too much noise.
5/ "Would you mind giving me a hand?" Paul asked me. (This is also a request)
> Paul asked/ requested me to give him a hand.
6/ "Let's dine out", the wife said. (This is a suggestion)
> The wife suggested dining out.
7/ "Am I late? Sorry!" the employee said. (This is an apology)
> The employee apologized for being late.
8/ "If I were you, I would stop smoking", my friend told me. (This is an advice)
> My friend advised me to stop smoking.
9/ "What a silly answer!" the teacher said. (This is an exclamation)
> The teacher exclaimed that it was a silly answer.
10/ "Thank you for your help", the lady told me. (This is an expression of thanks)
> The lady thanked me for helping her.
11/ "Happy new year!" He told me. (This is a wish)
> He wished me a happy new year.
12/ "Well done! You've passed with distinction", the headmaster said. (This is congratulation)
> He congratulated me for passing the exam with distinction.
Exercise 1:
Becky met Helen, an old friend of hers. Helen told Becky lots of things. Two days later, Becky saw Alice, her best friend, and she told her what Helen said.
Use the indirect speech to report to
| Direct Speech (Helen to Becky) | Indirect speech (Becky to |
| a- "I married three years ago". | ¦ Helen told me ………………………... |
| b- "I have a 1-year-old son". | ¦ She said ……………………………… |
| c- "My husband used to work as a rep". | ¦She informed me……………………… |
| d- "He has recently resigned from his post so that we would have our own business". | ¦She added…………………………… ................................................................ |
| e- "I will be my husband's secretary". | ¦She told me…………………………… |
| f- "We are living in Essex and we will move to | ¦She said……………………………….. |
| g- "Do you often see | ¦She wanted to know…………………... |
| h- "Please, send my regards to her". | ¦She requested me …………………….. |
| i- "Keep in touch". | ¦ She asked me ………………………... |
Exercise 2: John telephoned David, and then he reported the conversation to his friend. Complete the reported conversation.
John: David you aren't busy, are you?
David: No, I am free.
John: So why don't we go windsurfing?
David: Sorry, John, I can't. I'm dog-tired.
John: Didn't you sleep well last night?
David: I had a terrible headache, so I didn't sleep a wink.
John: And how do you feel now?
David: Don't worry, I'm a bit better.
John: A bit better! David, you should see the doctor right now.
David: No, no. I'll be alright.
Yesterday morning, I telephoned David. I asked him________________________
He answered that___________________. So I suggested hat ____________________
But David ______________________ saying that ____________________________
I asked him______________________. He said he ___________________________
because ________________________. When I inquired _______________________
he tried to _______________________ me saying that ________________________
. As I wasn't convinced, I insisted that ___________________________ But he refused emphasizing that _______________________________.
Exercise 3: underline the best alternative. (Don't forget the reported speech.)
An old friend from abroad, whom I was expecting to stay with me, telephoned from the airport to tell me that (he arrived /had arrived / will arrive). I was still at the office at that time, but I had made arrangements for his arrival. After explaining (where is my house/ where was my house/ where my house was), I told him that I (had left/ have left/ left) the key in a hole near the door as I might be home rather late. I advised him (to go/ going/ go) into the kitchen and help himself to food and drink. Two hours later, my friend telephoned me from the house. At the moment, he said, he (was listening/ is listening/ had listened) to some of my records after having a wonderful meal. When I asked him (had he arrived/ did he arrive/ if he had arrived) to the house without difficulty, he answered that he (couldn't / cant / wasn't able) find the key, but fortunately the living-room window just by the apple tree (is/ has been/ had been) left open, so he climbed in. I listened to all this in astonishment. There is no apple tree in front of my living-room, but there is one in front of my neighbor's.
Exercise 4: Correct the underlined mistakes:
I was driving home from work one afternoon when I started feeling a little weak. As soon as I got home, I asked my wife (1) calling Dr Franklin at once. When he came, the doctor took a quick look at me, made the usual tests and asked me a few questions. I told him I (2) have a slight fever and that I (3) feel tired all over. Then he told me that I (4) have it: the flu. I asked him (5) what should I do. He said that it (6) won't be necessary for me to go to hospital because my illness (7) is not very serious. He told me that what I (8) have to do was just to stay in bed and take a complete rest for a whole week.
| Correction | |
| 1-………………………………………. | 5-………………………………………... |
| 2-………………………………………. | 6-………………………………………... |
| 3-………………………………………. | 7-………………………………………... |
| 4-………………………………………. | 8-………………………………………... |
Exercise 5: Focus on the underlined statements then turn them into the direct speech to get the original conversation between the traveler and the taxi driver.
As I was getting into a taxi to go to the airport last Sunday, I realized that (1) I had forgotten my ticket. So I asked the driver to wait a moment while I ran back inside. (2) He agreed and said that the meter was already running… On the way to the airport, (3) the driver told me he used to work there as a customs officer. (4) I asked him what it was like looking through luggage all day and (5) he told me that after a while he got used to it. (6) He asked me where I was going and (7) I told him I was off to
Traveler: (1) Sorry, ________________________? __________________________
Taxi driver: (2) ______________________ but _____________________________
(3) I ________________________________________________________________
(4) ________________________________________________________________ ?
Taxi driver: (5) Well, after a while ________________________________________
(6) ________________________________________________________________ ?
Traveler: (6) _________________________________________________________
Taxi driver: (8) ______________________________________________________?
Traveler: (9) _________________________________________________________
Taxi driver: (10) Here we are ___________________________________________
Traveler: (11) ________________________________________________________
Key:
Exercise 1:
Becky met Helen, an old friend of hers. Helen told Becky lots of things. Two days later, Becky saw Alice, her best friend, and she told her what Helen said.
Use the indirect speech to report to
| Direct Speech (Helen to Becky) | Indirect speech (Becky to |
| a- "I married three years ago". | ¦ Helen told me she has married three years before |
| b- "I have a 1-year-old son". | ¦ She said she had… |
| c- "My husband used to work as a rep". | ¦She informed me that her husband used to work… |
| d- "He has recently resigned from his post so that we would have our own business". | ¦She added that he had recently resigned… |
| e- "I will be my husband's secretary". | ¦She told me she would be her… |
| f- "We are living in Essex and we will move to | ¦She said they were living…and they would to |
| g- "Do you often see | ¦She wanted to know if I often saw you |
| h- "Please, send my regards to her". | ¦She requested me to send you her regards |
| i- "Keep in touch". | ¦ She asked me to keep in touch. |
Exercise 2: John telephoned David, and then he reported the conversation to his friend. Complete the reported conversation.
John: David you aren't busy, are you?
David: No, I am free.
John: So why don't we go windsurfing?
David: Sorry, John, I can't. I'm dog-tired.
John: Didn't you sleep well last night?
David: I had a terrible headache, so I didn't sleep a wink.
John: And how do you feel now?
David: Don't worry, I'm a bit better.
John: A bit better! David, you should see the doctor right now.
David: No, no. I'll be alright.
Yesterday morning, I telephoned David. I asked him if he was busy
He answered that he was free. So I suggested that we (should) go windsurfing.
But David apologized saying that he was dog-tired.
I asked him if he had slept well the night before. He said he hadn't slept a wink because he had had a terrible headache. When I inquired about how he felt then, he tried to relieve me saying that he was a little better.
As I wasn't convinced, I insisted that he should see the doctor right then. But he refused emphasizing that he would be alright.
Exercise 3: underline the best alternative. (Don't forget the reported speech.)
An old friend from abroad, whom I was expecting to stay with me, telephoned from the airport to tell me that (he arrived /had arrived / will arrive). I was still at the office at that time, but I had made arrangements for his arrival. After explaining (where is my house/ where was my house/ where my house was), I told him that I (had left/ have left/ left) the key in a hole near the door as I might be home rather late. I advised him (to go/ going/ go) into the kitchen and help himself to food and drink. Two hours later, my friend telephoned me from the house. At the moment, he said, he (was listening/ is listening/ had listened) to some of my records after having a wonderful meal. When I asked him (had he arrived/ did he arrive/ if he had arrived) to the house without difficulty, he answered that he (couldn't / cant / wasn't able) find the key, but fortunately the living-room window just by the apple tree (is/ has been/ had been) left open, so he climbed in. I listened to all this in astonishment. There is no apple tree in front of my living-room, but there is one in front of my neighbor's.
Exercise 4: Correct the underlined mistakes:
I was driving home from work one afternoon when I started feeling a little weak. As soon as I got home, I asked my wife (1) calling Dr Franklin at once. When he came, the doctor took a quick look at me, made the usual tests and asked me a few questions. I told him I (2) have a slight fever and that I (3) feel tired all over. Then he told me that I (4) have it: the flu. I asked him (5) what should I do. He said that it (6) won't be necessary for me to go to hospital because my illness (7) is not very serious. He told me that what I (8) have to do was just to stay in bed and take a complete rest for a whole week.
| Correction | |
| 1- to call | 5- what I should do |
| 2- had | 6- wouldn't be |
| 3- left | 7- was |
| 4- had | 8- had to |
Exercise 5: Focus on the underlined statements then turn them into the direct speech to get the original conversation between the traveler and the taxi driver.
As I was getting into a taxi to go to the airport last Sunday, I realized that (1) I had forgotten my ticket. So I asked the driver to wait a moment while I ran back inside. (2) He agreed and said that the meter was already running… On the way to the airport, (3) the driver told me he used to work there as a customs officer. (4) I asked him what it was like looking through luggage all day and (5) he told me that after a while he got used to it. (6) He asked me where I was going and (7) I told him I was off to
Traveler: (1) Sorry, would you mind waiting a moment ? I have forgotten my ticket.
Taxi driver: (2) Yes, OK, but the meter is already running.
(3) I used to work in the airport as a custom officer.
(4) what was it like looking through luggage all day ?
Taxi driver: (5) Well, after a while I got used to it.
(6) Where are you going?
Traveler: (6) I'm off to
Taxi driver: (8) Do you have your visa?
Traveler: (9) Yes, I do
Taxi driver: (10) Here we are Have a nice trip.
Traveler: (11) Thank you.
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